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English longbow

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The English longbow was a powerful <a href="Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> type of <a href="Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">bow</a>, about 6 ft (1.8 m) long. While it is debated whether it originated in England or in Wales from the <a href="Welsh_bow" title="Welsh bow">Welsh bow</a>, by the 14th century the <a href="Longbow" title="Longbow">longbow</a> was being used by both the English and the Welsh as a weapon of war and for hunting. English longbows were effective against the French during the <a href="Hundred_Years'_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, particularly in the battles of <a href="Battle_of_Sluys" title="Battle of Sluys">Sluys</a> (1340), <a href="Cr%C3%A9cy" class="mw-redirect" title="Crécy">Crécy</a> (1346), <a href="Battle_of_Poitiers" title="Battle of Poitiers">Poitiers</a> (1356), and <a href="Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Agincourt</a> (1415). They were less successful later on, as longbowmen had their lines broken at the <a href="Battle_of_Verneuil" title="Battle of Verneuil">Battle of Verneuil</a> (1424), although the English won a decisive victory there; they were completely routed at the <a href="Battle_of_Patay" title="Battle of Patay">Battle of Patay</a> (1429) when they were charged by the French mounted men-at-arms before they had prepared the terrain and finished defensive arrangements. The <a href="Battle_of_Pontvallain" title="Battle of Pontvallain">Battle of Pontvallain</a> (1370) had also previously shown longbowmen were not particularly effective when not given the time to set up defensive positions.

No English longbows survive from the period when the longbow was dominant (c. 1250–1450),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980-1">[1]</a> probably because bows became weaker, broke, and were replaced rather than being handed down through generations.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> More than 130 bows survive from the <a href="Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period, however. More than 3,500 arrows and 137 whole longbows were recovered from the <a href="Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose">Mary Rose</a>, a ship of <a href="Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>'s navy that sank at <a href="Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> in 1545.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Length">Length</h3></div>

A longbow must be long enough to allow its user to <a href="Bow_draw" title="Bow draw">draw</a> the string to a point on the face or body, and the length therefore varies with the user. In continental Europe it was generally seen as any bow longer than 3 ft 11 in (1.2 m). The <a href="Society_of_Antiquaries_of_London" title="Society of Antiquaries of London">Society of Antiquaries of London</a> says it is of 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 metres) in length.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Richard Bartelot, of the Royal Artillery Institution, said that the bow was of yew, 6 feet (1.8 m) long, with a 3-foot (910 mm) arrow.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <a href="Gaston_III%2C_Count_of_Foix" title="Gaston III, Count of Foix">Gaston III, Count of Foix</a>, wrote in 1388 that a longbow should be "of yew or <a href="Boxwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxwood">boxwood</a>, seventy inches (1.8 m) between the points of attachment for the cord".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongmanWalrond1967132-5">[5]</a> Historian <a href="Jim_Bradbury" title="Jim Bradbury">Jim Bradbury</a> said they were an average of about 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> All but the last estimate were made before the excavation of the Mary Rose, where bows were found ranging in length from 6 ft 2 in to 6 ft 11 in (1.87 to 2.11 m) with an average length of 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff20076-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Draw_weights">Draw weights</h3></div>

Estimates for the draw of these bows varies considerably. Before the recovery of the Mary Rose, Count M. Mildmay Stayner, Recorder of the British Long Bow Society, estimated the bows of the medieval period drew 90–110 <a href="Pound_(force)" title="Pound (force)">pounds-force</a> (400–490 <a href="Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newtons</a>), maximum, and W. F. Paterson, Chairman of the Society of Archer-Antiquaries, believed the weapon had a supreme draw weight of only 80–90 lbf (360–400 N).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980-1">[1]</a> Other sources suggest significantly higher draw weights. The original draw forces of examples from the Mary Rose are estimated by <a href="Robert_Hardy" title="Robert Hardy">Robert Hardy</a> at 150–160 lbf (670–710 N) at a 30-inch (76.2 cm) draw length; the full range of draw weights was between 100–185 lbf (440–820 N).<a href="#cite_note-Strickland-17-8">[8]</a> The 30-inch (76.2 cm) draw length was used because that is the length allowed by the arrows commonly found on the Mary Rose.

A modern longbow's draw is typically 60 lbf (270 N) or less, and by modern convention measured at 28 inches (71.1 cm). Historically, hunting bows usually had draw weights of 50–60 lbf (220–270 N), which is enough for all but the very largest game and which most reasonably fit adults can manage with practice. Today, there are few modern longbow archers capable of using 180–185 lbf (800–820 N) bows accurately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200513,_18-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

A record of how boys and men trained to use the bows with high draw weights survives from the reign of Henry VII.

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">[My yeoman father] taught me how to draw, how to lay my body in my bow ... not to draw with strength of arms as divers other nations do ... I had my bows bought me according to my age and strength, as I increased in them, so my bows were made bigger and bigger. For men shall never shoot well unless they be brought up to it.</blockquote><div class="templatequotecite">— Hugh Latimer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevelyan2008pp._[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddhzdClLxMr8CpgPA18_18],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddhzdClLxMr8CpgPA88_88]-12">[12]</a></div>

What Latimer meant when he describes laying his body into the bow was described thus:

<blockquote class="templatequote">the Englishman did not keep his left hand steady, and draw his bow with his right; but keeping his right at rest upon the nerve, he pressed the whole weight of his body into the horns of his bow. Hence probably arose the phrase "bending the bow", and the French of "drawing" one.</blockquote><div class="templatequotecite">— W. Gilpin.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction_and_materials">Construction and materials</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bowstave">Bowstave</h4></div>

The preferred material to make the longbow was <a href="Taxus_baccata" title="Taxus baccata">yew</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> although <a href="Fraxinus_excelsior" title="Fraxinus excelsior">ash</a>, <a href="Elm" title="Elm">elm</a>, and other <a href="Hardwood" title="Hardwood">hardwoods</a> were also used. <a href="Gerald_of_Wales" title="Gerald of Wales">Gerald of Wales</a> speaking of the bows used by the Welsh men of Gwent, says: "They are made neither of horn, ash nor yew, but of elm; ugly unfinished-looking weapons, but astonishingly stiff, large and strong, and equally capable of use for long or short shooting".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakeshott1960294-15">[15]</a> The traditional way of making a longbow requires drying the yew wood for 1 to 2 years, then slowly working it into shape, with the entire process taking up to four years. The bow stave is shaped to have a D cross-section. The outer "back" of <a href="Sapwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapwood">sapwood</a>, approximately flat, follows the natural growth rings; modern <a href="Bowyer" title="Bowyer">bowyers</a> often thin the sapwood, while in the Mary Rose bows the back of the bow was the natural surface of the wood, only the bark is removed. The inner side ("belly") of the bow stave consists of rounded <a href="Heartwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Heartwood">heartwood</a>. The heartwood resists <a href="Compression_(physics)" title="Compression (physics)">compression</a> and the outer sapwood performs better in <a href="Tension_(physics)" title="Tension (physics)">tension</a>. This combination in a single piece of wood (a <a href="Self_bow" title="Self bow">self bow</a>) forms a natural "laminate", somewhat similar in effect to the construction of a <a href="Composite_bow" title="Composite bow">composite bow</a>. Longbows last a long time if protected with a water-resistant coating, traditionally of "wax, resin and fine <a href="Tallow" title="Tallow">tallow</a>".

The trade of yew wood to England for longbows was such that it depleted the stocks of yew over a huge area. The first documented import of yew bowstaves to England was in 1294.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHageneder2007-16">[16]</a> In 1470 compulsory practice was renewed, and <a href="Hazel" title="Hazel">hazel</a>, ash, and <a href="Laburnum" title="Laburnum">laburnum</a> were specifically allowed for practice bows. Supplies still proved insufficient, until by the <a href="Statute_of_Westminster_1472" title="Statute of Westminster 1472">Statute of Westminster 1472</a>, every ship coming to an English port had to bring four bowstaves for every <a href="Tun_(unit)" title="Tun (unit)">tun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III of England</a> increased this to ten for every tun. This stimulated a vast network of extraction and supply, which formed part of royal monopolies in southern Germany and Austria. In 1483, the price of bowstaves rose from two to eight pounds per hundred, and in 1510 the Venetians obtained sixteen pounds per hundred.

In 1507 the <a href="Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> asked the <a href="Duke_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Bavaria">Duke of Bavaria</a> to stop cutting yew, but the trade was profitable, and in 1532 the royal monopoly was granted for the usual quantity "if there are that many". In 1562, the Bavarian government sent a long plea to the Holy Roman Emperor asking him to stop the cutting of yew and outlining the damage done to the forests by its selective extraction, which broke the canopy and allowed wind to destroy neighbouring trees. In 1568, despite a request from Saxony, no royal monopoly was granted because there was no yew to cut, and the next year Bavaria and Austria similarly failed to produce enough yew to justify a royal monopoly.

Forestry records in this area in the 17th century do not mention yew, and it seems that no mature trees were to be had. The English tried to obtain supplies from the Baltic, but in this period <a href="History_of_archery#Decline_of_archery" title="History of archery">bows were being replaced by guns</a> in any case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHageneder2007105–106-18">[18]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="String">String</h4></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Bowstring" title="Bowstring">Bowstring</a></div>

Bowstrings are made of <a href="Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, <a href="Flax" title="Flax">flax</a> or <a href="Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, and attached to the wood via horn "nocks" that fit onto the end of the bow. Modern synthetic materials (often <a href="Dacron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacron">Dacron</a>) are now commonly also used for strings.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arrows">Arrows</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Arrow" title="Arrow">arrow</a></div>

A wide variety of arrows were shot from the English longbow. Variations in length, <a href="Fletching" title="Fletching">fletching</a> and <a href="Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">heads</a> are all recorded. Perhaps the greatest diversity lies in hunting arrows, with varieties like broad-arrow, wolf-arrow, dog-arrow, Welsh arrow and Scottish arrow being recorded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200542-19">[19]</a> War arrows were ordered in the thousands for medieval armies and navies, supplied in sheaves normally of 24 arrows.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> For example, between 1341 and 1359 the English crown is known to have obtained 51,350 sheaves (1,232,400 arrows).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadge2007160–161-21">[21]</a>

Only one significant group of arrows, found at the wreck of the Mary Rose, has survived. Over 3,500 arrows were found, mainly made of poplar but also of ash, beech and hazel. Analysis of the intact specimens shows their length to range from 24 to 33 inches (61–83 cm), with an average of 30 inches (76 cm).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff20077-22">[22]</a> Because of the preservation conditions of the Mary Rose, no arrowheads survived. However, many heads have survived in other places, which has allowed typologies of arrowheads to be produced, the most modern being the Jessop typology.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The most common arrowheads in military use were the short <a href="Bodkin_point" title="Bodkin point">bodkin point</a> (Jessop M10) and a small barbed arrow (Jessop M4).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadge2007184–185-24">[24]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_and_performance">Use and performance</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Training">Training</h3></div>

Longbows were very difficult to master because the force required to deliver an arrow through the improving <a href="Armour" title="Armour">armour</a> of medieval Europe was very high by modern standards. Although the draw weight of a typical English longbow is disputed, it was at least 81 <a href="Pound_(force)" title="Pound (force)">pounds-force</a> (360 <a href="Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newtons</a>) and possibly more than 130 lbf (600 N). Considerable practice was required to produce the swift and effective combat shooting required. <a href="Skeleton" title="Skeleton">Skeletons</a> of longbow archers are recognisably affected, with enlarged left arms and often <a href="Osteophyte" title="Osteophyte">osteophytes</a> on left wrists, left shoulders and right fingers.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

It was the difficulty in using the longbow that led various monarchs of England to issue instructions encouraging their ownership and practice, including the <a href="Assize_of_Arms_of_1252" title="Assize of Arms of 1252">Assize of Arms of 1252</a> and <a href="Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a>'s declaration of 1363:

<blockquote class="templatequote">Whereas the people of our realm, rich and poor alike, were accustomed formerly in their games to practise archery – whence by God's help, it is well known that high honour and profit came to our realm, and no small advantage to ourselves in our warlike enterprises... that every man in the same country, if he be able-bodied, shall, upon holidays, make use, in his games, of bows and arrows... and so learn and practise archery.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></blockquote>

If the people practised archery, it would be that much easier for the king to recruit the proficient longbowmen he needed for his wars. Along with the improving ability of gunfire to penetrate plate armour, it was the long training needed by longbowmen that eventually led to their being replaced by <a href="Musketeer" title="Musketeer">musketeers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Range">Range</h3></div>

The range of the medieval weapon is not accurately known, with much depending on both the bow and the type of arrow. It has been suggested that a flight arrow of a professional archer of Edward III's time would reach 400 yd (370 m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakeshott1960297-28">[28]</a> The longest mark shot at on the London practice ground of <a href="Finsbury_Fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Finsbury Fields">Finsbury Fields</a> in the 16th century was 345 yd (315 m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201332-29">[29]</a> In 1542, Henry VIII set a minimum practice range for adults using flight arrows of 220 yd (200 m); ranges below this had to be shot with heavy arrows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201333-30">[30]</a> Modern experiments broadly concur with these historical ranges. A 150 lbf (667 N) Mary Rose replica longbow was able to shoot a 1.89 oz (53.6 g) arrow 359 yd (328 m) and a 3.38 oz (95.9 g) a distance of 273.3 yd (249.9 m).<a href="#cite_note-Strickland-18-31">[31]</a> In 2012, Joe Gibbs shot a 2.25 oz (64 g) livery arrow 292 yd (267 m) with a 170 lbf (760 N) yew bow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201365-32">[32]</a> The effective combat range of longbowmen was generally lower than what could be achieved on the practice range as sustained shooting was tiring and the rigors of campaigning would sap soldiers' strength. Writing thirty years after the Mary Rose sank, Barnabe Rich estimated that if a thousand English archers were mustered, after one week only one hundred of them would be able to shoot farther than two hundred paces (167 yd (153 m)), and two hundred of the others would not be able to shoot farther than 180 paces.<a href="#cite_note-bowvsmusket.com-33">[33]</a> In 2017, Hungarian master archer József Mónus set a new flight world record with a traditional English Longbow of 451.47 yards (412.82 m).<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armour_penetration">Armour penetration</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_testing">Modern testing</h4></div>

In an early modern test by <a href="Saxton_Pope" title="Saxton Pope">Saxton Pope</a>, a direct hit from a steel <a href="Bodkin_point" title="Bodkin point">bodkin point</a> penetrated Damascus <a href="Mail_(armour)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail (armour)">mail</a> armour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPope2003[httpwwwgutenbergorgcatalogworldreadfilepageno30fk_files17210_Chapter_IV.--Archery_in_general,_p.30]-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

A 2006 test was made by Matheus Bane using a 75 lbf (330 N) draw (at 28 in (71 cm)) bow, shooting at 10 yards (9.1 m); according to Bane's calculations, this would be approximately equivalent to a 110 lbf (490 N) bow at 250 yards (230 m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBane2006-38">[38]</a> Measured against a replica of the thinnest contemporary <a href="Gambeson" title="Gambeson">gambeson</a> (padded jacket) armour, a 905 grains (58.6 g) needle bodkin and a 935 grain curved broadhead penetrated over 3.5 inches (89 mm). (gambeson armour could be up to twice as thick as the coat tested; in Bane's opinion such a thick coat would have stopped bodkin arrows but not the cutting force of broadhead arrows.) Against "high quality riveted <a href="Mail_(armour)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail (armour)">maille</a>", the needle bodkin and curved broadhead penetrated 2.8 in (71 mm). Against a <a href="Coat_of_plates" title="Coat of plates">coat of plates</a>, the needle bodkin achieved 0.3 in (7.6 mm) penetration. The curved broadhead did not penetrate but caused 0.3 in of deformation of the metal. Results against <a href="Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a> of "minimum thickness" (0.047 in (1.2 mm)) were similar to the coat of plates, in that the needle bodkin penetrated to a shallow depth, the other arrows not at all. In Bane's view, the plate armour would have kept out all the arrows if thicker or worn with more padding.

Other modern tests described by Bane include those by Williams (which concluded that longbows could not penetrate mail, but in Bane's view did not use a realistic arrow tip), <a href="Robert_Hardy" title="Robert Hardy">Robert Hardy</a>'s tests (which achieved broadly similar results to Bane), and a Primitive Archer test which demonstrated that a longbow could penetrate a plate armour breastplate. However, the Primitive Archer test used a 160 lbf (710 N) longbow at very short range, generating 160 joules (vs. 73 for Bane and 80 for Williams), so probably not representative of battles of the time.

Tests conducted by Mark Stretton<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoarGibbsJuryStretton2010127–151-39">[39]</a> examined the effects of heavier war shafts (as opposed to lighter hunting or distance-shooting 'flight arrows'). The quarrel-like 3.6 oz (102 g) arrow from a yew 'self bow' (with a draw weight of 144 lbf (640 N) at 32 in (81 cm)) while travelling at 47.23 m/s (155.0 ft/s) yielded 113.76 joules, more <a href="Kinetic_energy_penetrator" title="Kinetic energy penetrator">kinetic energy</a> than the lighter broad-heads while achieving 90% of the range. The short, heavy <a href="Quarrel_(projectile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarrel (projectile)">quarrel</a>-form bodkin could penetrate a replica <a href="Brigandine" title="Brigandine">brigandine</a> at up to 40° from perpendicular.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoarGibbsJuryStretton2010127–151-39">[39]</a>

In 2011, <a href="Mike_Loades" title="Mike Loades">Mike Loades</a> conducted an experiment in which short bodkin arrows were shot at a range of 10 yd (9.1 m) by bows of 140 lbf (620 N) – powerful bows at less than normal battlefield range. The target was covered in a riveted mail over a fabric armour of deerskin over 24 linen layers. While most arrows went through the mail layer, none fully penetrated the textile armour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201372–73-40">[40]</a>

Other research has also concluded that later medieval armour, such as that of the Italian city-state mercenary companies, was effective at stopping contemporary arrows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser2003-41">[41]</a>

Computer analysis by Warsaw University of Technology in 2017 has estimated that heavy <a href="Bodkin_point" title="Bodkin point">bodkin point</a> arrows could penetrate typical <a href="Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a> of the time at up to 738 feet (225 m). However, the depth of penetration would be slight at that range, a mere 0.55 in (14 mm) on average; penetration increased as the range closed or against armour lesser than the best quality available at the time, but stopped at 0.94 in (24 mm), the highest penetration depth estimated at 82 ft (25 m) range, it was unlikely to be deadly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagierNowakTomaszZochowski201773,_77,_81,_84-42">[42]</a>

In August 2019, the Blacksmith <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> channel 'Tod's Workshop', together with historian Dr <a href="Tobias_Capwell" title="Tobias Capwell">Tobias Capwell</a> (curator at the <a href="Wallace_collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace collection">Wallace collection</a>), Joe Gibbs (archer), Will Sherman (fletcher) and Kevin Legg (armourer) ran a practical test using as close a recreation of 15th century plate armour (made with materials and techniques fitting to the time period) over a chainmail and gambeson against a 160 lbf (710 N) longbow. They shot a variety of arrows at the target and the results showed that the arrows shot by a 160 lb longbow were unable to penetrate the front of the armour at any range, but the arrow that struck below the harness went right through the underlying protection.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contemporary_accounts">Contemporary accounts</h4></div>

Against massed men in armour, massed longbows were murderously effective on many battlefields.<a href="#cite_note-academia.edu-44">[44]</a>

Strickland and Hardy suggest that "even at a range of 240 yards (220 m), heavy war arrows shot from bows of poundages in the mid- to upper range possessed by the Mary Rose bows would have been capable of killing or severely wounding men equipped with armour of wrought iron. Higher-quality armour of steel would have given considerably greater protection, which accords well with the experience of Oxford's men against the elite French vanguard at Poitiers in 1356, and des Ursin's statement that the French knights of the first ranks at Agincourt, which included some of the most important (and thus best-equipped) nobles, remained comparatively unhurt by the English arrows".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy2005272–278-45">[45]</a>

Archery was described by contemporaries as ineffective against steel <a href="Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a> in the <a href="Battle_of_Neville's_Cross" title="Battle of Neville's Cross">Battle of Neville's Cross</a> (1346), the siege of <a href="Battle_of_Bergerac" title="Battle of Bergerac">Bergerac</a> (1345), and the <a href="Battle_of_Poitiers" title="Battle of Poitiers">Battle of Poitiers</a> (1356); such armour became available to European knights and men at arms of fairly modest means by the middle of the 14th century, although never to all soldiers in any army. Longbowmen were, however, effective at Poitiers, and this success stimulated changes in armour manufacture partly intended to make armoured men less vulnerable to archery. Nevertheless, at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and for some decades thereafter, English longbowmen continued to be an effective battlefield force.<a href="#cite_note-academia.edu-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shields">Shields</h4></div>

Following the <a href="Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Battle of Crécy</a>, the longbow did not always prove as effective. For example, at the <a href="Battle_of_Poitiers" title="Battle of Poitiers">Battle of Poitiers</a> (1356), the French men-at-arms formed a shield wall with which Geoffrey le Baker recounts "protecting their bodies with joined shields, [and] turned their faces away from the missiles. So the archers emptied their quivers in vain".<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Summary">Summary</h4></div>

Modern tests and contemporary accounts agree therefore that well-made plate armour could protect against longbows. However, this did not necessarily make the longbow ineffective; thousands of longbowmen were deployed in the English victory at Agincourt against plate armoured French knights in 1415. Clifford Rogers has argued that while longbows might not have been able to penetrate steel breastplates at Agincourt they could still penetrate the thinner armour on the limbs. Most of the French knights advanced on foot but, exhausted by walking across wet muddy terrain in heavy armour enduring a "terrifying hail of arrow shot", they were overwhelmed in the melee.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

Less heavily armoured soldiers were more vulnerable than knights. For example, enemy crossbowmen were forced to retreat at Crécy when deployed without their protecting <a href="Pavise" title="Pavise">pavises</a>. Horses were generally less well protected than the knights themselves; shooting the French knights' horses from the side (where they were less well armoured) is described by contemporary accounts of the <a href="Battle_of_Poitiers" title="Battle of Poitiers">Battle of Poitiers</a> (1356), and at Agincourt <a href="John_Keegan" title="John Keegan">John Keegan</a> has argued that the main effect of the longbow would have been in injuring the horses of the mounted French knights.<a href="#cite_note-Longbow_Archers-48">[48]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shooting_rate">Shooting rate</h3></div>

A typical military longbow archer would be provided with between 60 and 72 arrows at the time of battle. Most archers would not shoot arrows at the maximum rate, as it would exhaust even the most experienced man. "With the heaviest bows [a modern war bow archer] does not like to try for more than six a minute."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200531-49">[49]</a> Not only do the arms and shoulder muscles tire from the exertion, but the fingers holding the bowstring become strained; therefore, actual rates of shooting in combat would vary considerably. Ranged <a href="Volley_fire" title="Volley fire">volleys</a> at the beginning of the battle would differ markedly from the closer, aimed shots as the battle progressed and the enemy neared. On the battlefield English archers stored their arrows stabbed upright into the ground at their feet, reducing the time it took to nock, draw and loose. Massed longbowmen could produce a "storm" of arrows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980-1">[1]</a>

Arrows were not unlimited, so archers and their commanders took every effort to ration their use to the situation at hand. Nonetheless, resupply during battle was available. Young boys were often employed to run additional arrows to longbow archers while in their positions on the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

In tests against a moving target simulating a <a href="Galloping" class="mw-redirect" title="Galloping">galloping</a> knight<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoarGibbsJuryStretton2010127–151-39">[39]</a> it took some approximately seven seconds to draw, aim and loose an armour-piercing heavy arrow using a replica war bow. It was found that in the seven seconds between the first and second shots the target advanced 70 yards (64 m) and that the second shot occurred at such close range that, if it was a realistic contest, running away was the only option.

A Tudor English author expects eight shots from a longbow in the same time as five from a musket.<a href="#cite_note-bowvsmusket.com-33">[33]</a> He points out that the musket also shoots at a flatter trajectory, so is more likely to hit its target and its shot is likely to be more damaging in the event of a hit. The advantage of early firearms lay in the lower training requirements, the opportunity to take cover while shooting, flatter trajectory,<a href="#cite_note-bowvsmusket.com-33">[33]</a> and greater penetration.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treating_arrow_wounds">Treating arrow wounds</h3></div>

Specialised medical tools designed for arrow wounds have existed since ancient times: <a href="Diocles_of_Carystus" title="Diocles of Carystus">Diocles</a> (successor of <a href="Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>) devised the graphiscos, a form of <a href="Cannula" title="Cannula">cannula</a> with hooks, and the duck-billed forceps (allegedly invented by Heras of <a href="Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>) was employed during the medieval period to extract arrows. While armour-piercing "bodkin" points were relatively easy (if painful) to remove, barbed points required the flesh to be cut or pulled aside. An arrow would be pushed through and taken out the other side of the body only in the worst cases, as this would cause even more tissue damage and risk cutting through major blood vessels.

Henry, Prince of Wales, later <a href="Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a>, was wounded in the face by an arrow at the <a href="Battle_of_Shrewsbury" title="Battle of Shrewsbury">Battle of Shrewsbury</a> (1403). The royal physician <a href="John_Bradmore" title="John Bradmore">John Bradmore</a> had a tool made that consisted of a pair of smooth tongs. Once carefully inserted into the socket of the arrowhead, the tongs screwed apart until they gripped its walls and allowed the head to be extracted from the wound. Prior to the extraction, the hole made by the arrow shaft was widened by inserting larger and larger dowels of <a href="Elderberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Elderberry">elder</a> <a href="Pith" title="Pith">pith</a> wrapped in linen down into the entry wound. The dowels were soaked in <a href="Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>, now known to have <a href="Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> properties.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The wound was then dressed with a <a href="Poultice" title="Poultice">poultice</a> of <a href="Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and honey mixed in <a href="Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> (pre-dating <a href="Ambroise_Par%C3%A9" title="Ambroise Paré">Ambroise Paré</a> but whose therapeutic use of turpentine was inspired by Roman medical texts that may have been familiar to Bradmore). After 20 days, the wound was free of infection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECummins2006-54">[54]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3></div>

The word may have been coined to distinguish the longbow from the crossbow. The first recorded use of the term longbow, as distinct from simply 'bow', is possibly in a 1386 administrative document which refers in Latin to arcus vocati longbowes, "bows called 'longbows'", though the reading of the last word in the original document is not certain. A 1444 will <a href="Probate" title="Probate">proved</a> in York bequeaths "a sadil, alle my longe bowis, a bedde".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3></div>

The origins of the English longbow are disputed. While it is hard to assess the significance of military archery in pre-<a href="Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> <a href="Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon warfare</a>, it is clear that archery played a prominent role under the <a href="Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>, as the story of the <a href="Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> shows. Their <a href="Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Norman</a> descendants also made use of military archery, as exemplified by their victory at the <a href="Battle_of_the_Standard" title="Battle of the Standard">Battle of the Standard</a> in 1138.

During the Anglo-Norman invasions of <a href="Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, Welsh bowmen took a heavy toll of the invaders and Welsh archers would feature in English armies from this point on. <a href="Giraldus_Cambrensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giraldus Cambrensis">Giraldus Cambrensis</a> <a href="Itinerarium_Cambriae" title="Itinerarium Cambriae">toured Wales</a> in 1188, recording that the bows of <a href="Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a> were "stiff and strong, not only for missiles to be shot from a distance, but also for sustaining heavy blows in close quarters."<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> He gave examples of the performance of the Welsh bow :

<blockquote class="templatequote">[I]n the war against the Welsh, one of the men of arms was struck by an arrow shot at him by a Welshman. It went right through his thigh, high up, where it was protected inside and outside the leg by his iron <a href="Chausses" title="Chausses">chausses</a>, and then through the skirt of his leather tunic; next it penetrated that part of the saddle which is called the alva or seat; and finally it lodged in his horse, driving so deep that it killed the animal.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></blockquote>

However, historians dispute whether this archery used a different kind of bow from the later English Longbow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200534–48-59">[59]</a>

Traditionally it has been argued that prior to the beginning of the 14th century, the weapon was a self bow between four and five feet in length, known since the 19th century as the shortbow. This weapon, drawn to the chest rather than the ear, was much weaker. However, in 1985, Jim Bradbury reclassified this weapon as the ordinary wooden bow, reserving the term shortbow for short <a href="Composite_bow" title="Composite bow">composite bows</a> and arguing that longbows were a developed form of this ordinary bow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury198514–15-60">[60]</a> Strickland and Hardy in 2005 took this argument further, suggesting that the shortbow was a myth and all early English bows were a form of longbow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200537–38,_48-61">[61]</a> In 2011, Clifford Rogers forcefully restated the traditional case based upon a variety of evidence, including a large scale iconographic survey.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers2011-62">[62]</a> In 2012, Richard Wadge added to the debate with an extensive survey of record, iconographic and archaeological evidence, concluding that longbows co-existed with shorter self-wood bows in England in the period between the Norman conquest and the reign of Edward III, but that powerful longbows shooting heavy arrows were a rarity until the later 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadge2012211–212-63">[63]</a> Whether or not there was a technological revolution at the end of the 13th century therefore remains in dispute. What is agreed, however, is that an effective tactical system that included powerful longbows used in mass was developed in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

In 1295, <a href="Edward_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward I">Edward I</a> began to better organize his armed forces, creating uniformly-sized units and a clear chain of command. He introduced the combined use of an initial assault by archers followed by a cavalry attack and infantry. The technique was later used effectively at the <a href="Battle_of_Falkirk" title="Battle of Falkirk">Battle of Falkirk</a> in 1298.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">The rising importance of foot troops, then, brought not only the opportunity but also the need to expand armies substantially. Then as early as the late 13th century, we can observe Edward I campaigning at the head of armies incorporating tens of thousands of paid archers and spearmen. This represented a major change in approaches to recruitment, organization, and above all pay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeen1999148-65">[65]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourteenth_and_fifteenth_centuries">Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries</h3></div>

The longbow decided many medieval battles fought by the English and Welsh, the most significant of which were the <a href="Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Battle of Crécy</a> (1346) and the <a href="Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Battle of Agincourt</a> (1415), during the <a href="Hundred_Years'_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>; these followed earlier successes, notably at the <a href="Battle_of_Falkirk" title="Battle of Falkirk">Battle of Falkirk</a> (1298) and the <a href="Battle_of_Halidon_Hill" title="Battle of Halidon Hill">Battle of Halidon Hill</a> (1333) during the <a href="Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">Wars of Scottish Independence</a>. They were less successful after this, with longbowmen having their lines broken at the <a href="Battle_of_Verneuil" title="Battle of Verneuil">Battle of Verneuil</a> (1424), and being routed at the <a href="Battle_of_Patay" title="Battle of Patay">Battle of Patay</a> (1429) when they were charged before they had set up their defences, and with the war-ending <a href="Battle_of_Castillon" title="Battle of Castillon">Battle of Castillon</a> (1453) being decided by the French artillery.

Although longbows were much faster and more accurate than the <a href="Black-powder" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-powder">black-powder</a> weapons which replaced them, longbowmen always took a long time to train because of the years of practice necessary before a war longbow could be used effectively (examples of longbows from the <a href="Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose">Mary Rose</a> typically had draws greater than 143 lbf (637 N)). In an era in which warfare was usually seasonal, and non-noble soldiers spent part of the year working at farms, the year-round training required for the effective use of the longbow was a challenge. A <a href="Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a> was an expensive proposition to a medieval ruler. Mainland European armies seldom trained a significant longbow corps. Due to their specialized training, English longbowmen were sought as <a href="Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a> in other European countries, most notably in the Italian city-states and in Spain.

The <a href="White_Company" title="White Company">White Company</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConan_Doyle1997-66">[66]</a> comprising men-at-arms and longbowmen and commanded by Sir <a href="John_Hawkwood" title="John Hawkwood">John Hawkwood</a>, is the best known English <a href="Free_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Company">Free Company</a> of the 14th century. The presence of English mercenaries led to a limited diffusion of the longbow until around 1430 in northern and central Italy, to the extent that in <a href="Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> and <a href="Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> there were craftsmen capable of producing bows and arrows “in the English manner.” In 1373, the <a href="Podest%C3%A0" title="Podestà">podestà</a> of <a href="Reggio_Emilia" title="Reggio Emilia">Reggio Emilia</a> (then under <a href="Visconti_of_Milan" title="Visconti of Milan">Visconti</a> control) requested that Ambrogio Visconti grant the inhabitants of the city and its countryside permission to equip themselves with bows and arrows “in the English manner” in order to defend themselves against enemy raids.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The powerful Hungarian king, <a href="Louis_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis the Great">Louis the Great</a>, is an example of someone who used longbowmen in his Italian campaigns.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sixteenth_century_and_later">Sixteenth century and later</h3></div>

Longbows remained in use until around the 16th century, when advances in <a href="Firearms" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearms">firearms</a> made gunpowder weapons a significant factor in warfare and such units as <a href="Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebusiers</a> and <a href="Grenadiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Grenadiers">grenadiers</a> began appearing. Despite this, the English Crown made numerous efforts to continue to promote archery practice by banning other sports and fining people for not possessing bows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunn201053–81-69">[69]</a> Indeed, just before the <a href="English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, a pamphlet by <a href="William_Neade" title="William Neade">William Neade</a> entitled The Double-Armed Man advocated that soldiers be trained in both the longbow and <a href="Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pike</a>; although this advice was disregarded by other writers of the day, who accepted that firearms had supplanted the role of archery.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>

At the <a href="Battle_of_Flodden" title="Battle of Flodden">Battle of Flodden</a> in 1513, wind and rain may have contributed to the ineffectiveness of the English archers against the Scottish nobles in full armour who formed the front rank of their advance, but when the opportunity arose to shoot at less well protected foot soldiers, the result was devastating. Despite his armour, King <a href="James_IV_of_Scotland" title="James IV of Scotland">James IV of Scotland</a> received several arrow wounds in the fighting, one of which may have caused his death. Flodden was the last major British battle in which the longbow played a significant part, even if not a decisive one.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Longbows remained the main weapon of the <a href="Trained_bands" class="mw-redirect" title="Trained bands">trained bands</a>, the home-defence militia of the Tudor period, until they were disbanded by Queen <a href="Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> in 1598.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The last recorded use of bows in an English battle may have been a skirmish at <a href="Bridgnorth" title="Bridgnorth">Bridgnorth</a>, in October 1642, during the Civil War, when an impromptu town militia, armed with bows, proved effective against un-armoured musketeers.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Longbowmen remained a feature of the <a href="Cavalier" title="Cavalier">Royalist Army</a>, but were not used by the <a href="Roundheads" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundheads">Roundheads</a>.

Longbows have been in continuous production and use for sport and for hunting to the present day, but since 1642 they have been a minority interest, and very few have had the high draw weights of the medieval weapons. Other differences include the use of a stiffened non-bending centre section, rather than a continuous bend.

Serious military interest in the longbow faded after the seventeenth century but occasionally schemes to resurrect its military use were proposed. <a href="Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> was a proponent in the 1770s; the <a href="Honourable_Artillery_Company" title="Honourable Artillery Company">Honourable Artillery Company</a> had an archer company between 1784 and 1794, and a man named Richard Mason wrote a book proposing the arming of militia with pike and longbow in 1798.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeath1980208–9-74">[74]</a> Donald Featherstone also records a Lt. Col. Richard Lee of 44th Foot advocated the military use of the longbow in 1792.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeatherstone1973154-75">[75]</a> <a href="Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, in <a href="A_History_of_the_English-Speaking_Peoples" title="A History of the English-Speaking Peoples">A History of the English-Speaking Peoples</a>, wrote:

<blockquote>The War Office has among its records a treatise written during the peace after Waterloo by a general officer of long experience in the Napoleonic wars recommending that muskets should be discarded in favour of the long-bow on account of its superior accuracy, rapid discharge, and effective range.<a href="#cite_note-Churchill-76">[76]</a></blockquote>

There is a record of the use of the longbow in action as late as <a href="WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a>, when <a href="Jack_Churchill" title="Jack Churchill">Jack Churchill</a> is credited with a longbow kill in France in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeatherstone1973157–158-77">[77]</a> The weapon was certainly considered for use by <a href="Commandos" class="mw-redirect" title="Commandos">Commandos</a> during the war but it is not known whether it was used in action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeath1980215–216-78">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tactics">Tactics</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_formations">Battle formations</h3></div>

The idea that there was a standard formation for English longbow armies was argued by Alfred Byrne in his influential work on the battles of the Hundred Years' War, The Crecy War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurne199137–39-79">[79]</a> This view was challenged by Jim Bradbury in his book The Medieval Archer<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury198595–98-80">[80]</a> and more modern works are more ready to accept a variety of formations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett19941–20-81">[81]</a>

In summary, however, the usual English deployment in the 14th and 15th centuries was as follows:

<ul><li>Infantry (usually dismounted knights and armoured soldiers employed by the nobles and often armed with <a href="Polearm" title="Polearm">polearms</a> such as <a href="Pollaxe_(Polearm)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollaxe (Polearm)">pollaxes</a> and <a href="Bill_(weapon)" title="Bill (weapon)">bills</a>) in the centre.</li>

<li>Longbowmen were usually deployed primarily on the flanks, sometimes to the front.</li>

<li>Cavalry was rarely used but, where deployed, either on the flanks (to make or protect against flank attacks), or in the centre in reserve, to be deployed as needed (for example, to counter any breakthroughs).</li></ul>

In the 16th century, these formations evolved in line with new technologies and techniques from the continent. Formations with a central core of pikes and bills were flanked by companies of "shot" made up of a mixture of archers and <a href="Arquebusiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Arquebusiers">arquebusiers</a>, sometimes with a skirmish screen of archers and arquebusiers in front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy2005403-82">[82]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surviving_bows_and_arrows">Surviving bows and arrows</h2></div>

More than 3,500 arrows and 137 whole longbows were recovered from the <a href="Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose">Mary Rose</a>, a ship of <a href="Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>'s navy that capsized and sank at <a href="Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> in 1545. It is an important source for the history of the longbow, as the bows, archery implements and the skeletons of archers have been preserved. The bows range in length from 6 ft 2 in to 6 ft 11 in (1.87 to 2.11 m) with an average length of 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff20076-7">[7]</a> The majority of the arrows were made of poplar, others were made of beech, ash and hazel. Draw lengths of the arrows varied between 24 and 32 inches (61 and 81 cm) with the majority having a draw length of 30 inches (76 cm).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff20077-22">[22]</a> The head would add 2.0 to 5.9 in (5 to 15 cm) depending on type, though some 0.79 to 1.77 in (2 to 4.5 cm) must be allowed for the insertion of the shaft into the socket.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy20056-83">[83]</a>

The longbows on the Mary Rose were in excellent finished condition. There were enough bows to test some to destruction which resulted in draw forces of 100 lbf (450 N) on average. However, analysis of the wood indicated that they had degraded significantly in the seawater and mud, which had weakened their draw forces. Replicas were made and when tested had draw forces of from 100 to 185 lbf (445 to 823 N).<a href="#cite_note-Strickland-17-8">[8]</a>

In 1980, before the finds from the Mary Rose, Robert E. Kaiser published a paper stating that there were five known surviving longbows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980-1">[1]</a>

<ul><li>The first bow comes from the <a href="Battle_of_Hedgeley_Moor" title="Battle of Hedgeley Moor">Battle of Hedgeley Moor</a> in 1464, during the <a href="Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>. A family who lived at the castle since the battle had preserved it to modern times. It is 65 in (1.66 m) and a 61 lbf (270 N) draw force.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li>

<li>The second dates to the <a href="Battle_of_Flodden" title="Battle of Flodden">Battle of Flodden</a> in 1513 ("a landmark in the history of archery, as the last battle on English soil to be fought with the longbow as the principal weapon..."<a href="#cite_note-harvnb|Heath_n.d.|p=134-85">[85]</a>). It hung in the rafters at the headquarters of the <a href="Royal_Company_of_Archers" title="Royal Company of Archers">Royal Scottish Archers</a> in <a href="Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980-1">[1]</a> It has a draw force of 81 to 92 lbf (360 to 410 N).</li>

<li>The third and fourth were recovered in 1836 by John Deane from the Mary Rose.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Both weapons are in the Tower of London Armoury and Horace Ford writing in 1887 estimated them to have a draw force of 63 to 72 lbf (280 to 320 N).<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> A modern replica made in the early 1970s of these bows has a draw force of 100 lbf (460 N).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></li>

<li>The fifth surviving longbow comes from the armoury of the church in the village of <a href="Mendlesham" title="Mendlesham">Mendlesham</a> in <a href="Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a>, and is believed to date either from the period of Henry VIII or Queen <a href="Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>. The Mendlesham Bow is broken but has an estimated length of 68 to 69 in (1.73 to 1.75 m) and draw force of 79 lbf (350 N).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_importance">Social importance</h2></div>

The importance of the longbow in English culture can be seen in the legends of <a href="Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a>, which increasingly depicted him as a master archer, and also in the "Song of the Bow", a poem from The White Company by Sir <a href="Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a>

During the reign of <a href="Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a>, the <a href="Assize_of_Arms_of_1252" title="Assize of Arms of 1252">Assize of Arms of 1252</a> required that all "citizens, burgesses, free tenants, villeins and others from 15 to 60 years of age" should be armed.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The poorest of them were expected to have a <a href="Halberd" title="Halberd">halberd</a> and a knife, and a bow if they owned land worth more than £2.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> This made it easier for the King to raise an army, but also meant that the bow was a weapon commonly used by rebels during the <a href="Peasants'_Revolt" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a>. From the time that the <a href="Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeoman</a> class of England became proficient with the longbow, the nobility in England had to be careful not to push them into open rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>

It has been conjectured that <a href="Taxus_baccata" title="Taxus baccata">yew</a> trees were commonly planted in English churchyards to have readily available longbow wood.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Archery" title="Archery">Archery</a></li>

<li><a href="Infantry_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Infantry in the Middle Ages">Infantry in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaiser1980_1-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevick1992">Levick 1992</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a> footnote 5, citing "The Berkhamsted Bow", Antiquaries Journal 11 (London), p. 423

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a> footnote 6, citing Major Richard G. Bartelot, Assistant Historical Secretary, Royal Artillery Institution, Old Military Academy, Woolwich, England. Letter, 16 February 1976

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongmanWalrond1967132-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongmanWalrond1967132_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLongmanWalrond1967">Longman & Walrond 1967</a>, p. 132.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradbury1985">Bradbury 1985</a>, p. 75

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff20076-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff20076_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff20076_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStaff2007">Staff 2007</a>, p. 6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Strickland-17-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strickland-17_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strickland-17_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, p. 17

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200513,_18-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200513,_18_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, pp. 13, 18.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> A review of The Great Warbow "The power of a bow is measured in its draw-weight, and these days few men can pull a bow above 80lb... and skeletons retrieved from the wreck show spinal distortions, indicating just what it took to be a proper archer" (<a href="#CITEREFCohu2005">Cohu 2005</a>).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> In the English language there is the expression that someone "was not pulling their weight". This is thought to infer that someone was using a longbow that had a draw weight that was less than that person's body weight.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevelyan2008pp._[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddhzdClLxMr8CpgPA18_18],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddhzdClLxMr8CpgPA88_88]-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrevelyan2008pp._[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddhzdClLxMr8CpgPA18_18],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddhzdClLxMr8CpgPA88_88]_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrevelyan2008">Trevelyan 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dhzdClLxMr8C&pg=PA18">18</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dhzdClLxMr8C&pg=PA88">88</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrevelyan2008">Trevelyan 2008</a>, p. 18 quoting W. Gilpin (1791) Forest Scenery

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFBanks2010" class="citation web cs1">Banks, Gavin (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230314194603/http://www.fieldandrovingarcherysociety.co.uk/infopage.php?page_id=8">"It had to be yew"</a>. Field and Roving Archery Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fieldandrovingarcherysociety.co.uk/infopage.php?page_id=8">the original</a> on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakeshott1960294-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOakeshott1960294_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOakeshott1960">Oakeshott 1960</a>, p. 294.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHageneder2007-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHageneder2007_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHageneder2007">Hageneder 2007</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBritain1762" class="citation cs2">Britain, Great (1762), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lKU3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA408">Statutes at Large</a>, vol. 3, p. 408, <q>...because that our sovereign lord the King, by a petition delivered to him in the said parliament, by the commons of the same, hath perceived That the great scarcity of bowstaves is now in this realm, and the bowstaves that be in this realm be sold as an excessive price...</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHageneder2007105–106-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHageneder2007105–106_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHageneder2007">Hageneder 2007</a>, pp. 105–106.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200542-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200542_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, p. 42.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> War arrows were often described as being a "clothyard" in length – the clothyard being the slightly longer physical measure from the fingertips to the nose, but with the head turned away from the fingertips. At the time of the Hundred Years' War archers drew the arrow back to the ear rather than to the chin.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadge2007160–161-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadge2007160–161_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWadge2007">Wadge 2007</a>, pp. 160–161.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadge2007184–185-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadge2007184–185_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWadge2007">Wadge 2007</a>, pp. 184–185.

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<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Dr. A.J. Stirland. Raising the Dead: the Skeleton Crew of Henry VIII's Great Ship the Mary Rose. (Chichester 2002) As cited in <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, p.

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<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDavies2002" class="citation journal cs1">Davies, Jonathan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44230774">"'A Combersome Tying Weapon in a Throng of Men': The Decline of the Longbow in Elizabethan England"</a>. Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research. 80 (321): 16–31. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-9700">0037-9700</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44230774">44230774</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakeshott1960297-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOakeshott1960297_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOakeshott1960">Oakeshott 1960</a>, p. 297.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201332-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoades201332_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoades2013">Loades 2013</a>, p. 32.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201333-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoades201333_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoades2013">Loades 2013</a>, p. 33.

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<li id="cite_note-Strickland-18-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Strickland-18_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, p. 18, Appendix 408–418

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201365-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoades201365_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoades2013">Loades 2013</a>, p. 65.

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<li id="cite_note-bowvsmusket.com-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bowvsmusket.com_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bowvsmusket.com_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bowvsmusket.com_33-2">c</a> A right exelent and pleasaunt dialogue, betwene Mercury and an English souldier contayning his supplication to Mars: bevvtified with sundry worthy histories, rare inuentions, and politike deuises. wrytten by B. Rich: gen. 1574. Published 1574 by J. Day. These bookes are to be sold [by H. Disle] at the corner shop, at the South west doore of Paules church in London.

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<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldarchery.sport/world-records?category=English%20Longbow%20Unlimited%20Men&discipline=Flight%20Archery">"World Records"</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PVkTlu0C-Ks">"412.82 m English Longbow Flight shooting World Record – Mónus"</a>. <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. 29 November 2017.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPope2003[httpwwwgutenbergorgcatalogworldreadfilepageno30fk_files17210_Chapter_IV.--Archery_in_general,_p.30]-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPope2003[httpwwwgutenbergorgcatalogworldreadfilepageno30fk_files17210_Chapter_IV.--Archery_in_general,_p.30]_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPope2003">Pope 2003</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?pageno=30&fk_files=17210">Chapter IV.--Archery in general, p.30</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160324192153/https://royalarmouries.org/what-we-do/research/analytical-projects/armour-piercing-arrowheads">"Royal Armouries: 6. Armour-piercing arrowheads"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royalarmouries.org/what-we-do/research/analytical-projects/armour-piercing-arrowheads">the original</a> on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 28 September 2008.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBane2006-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBane2006_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBane2006">Bane 2006</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESoarGibbsJuryStretton2010127–151-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoarGibbsJuryStretton2010127–151_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoarGibbsJuryStretton2010127–151_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoarGibbsJuryStretton2010127–151_39-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSoarGibbsJuryStretton2010">Soar et al. 2010</a>, pp. 127–151.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades201372–73-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoades201372–73_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoades2013">Loades 2013</a>, pp. 72–73.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser2003-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaiser2003_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser2003">Kaiser 2003</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagierNowakTomaszZochowski201773,_77,_81,_84-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagierNowakTomaszZochowski201773,_77,_81,_84_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagierNowakTomaszZochowski2017">Magier et al. 2017</a>, pp. 73, 77, 81, 84.

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<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBxdTkddHaE">"ARROWS vs ARMOUR – Medieval Myth Busting"</a>. <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. 29 August 2019.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-academia.edu-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-academia.edu_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-academia.edu_44-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/13146838/_The_Efficacy_of_the_Medieval_Longbow_A_Reply_to_Kelly_DeVries_War_in_History_5_no._2_1998_233-42">"The Efficacy of the Medieval Longbow: A Reply to Kelly DeVries"</a>, War in History 5, no. 2 (1998): 233–42; idem, "The Battle of Agincourt", The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas, ed. L. J. Andrew Villalon and Donald J. Kagay (Leiden: Brill, 2008): 37–132.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy2005272–278-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy2005272–278_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, pp. 272–278.

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<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Loades 2013, p. 10.

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<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCurry2015" class="citation news cs1">Curry, Anne (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/agincourt-medieval-englands-finest-hour/">"Agincourt: medieval England's finest hour?"</a>. History Extra. Retrieved 23 March 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Longbow_Archers-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Longbow_Archers_48-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.longbow-archers.com/historyagincourt.html">"AGINCOURT – 25 Oct 1415"</a>. Longbow Archers. Retrieved 27 July 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200531-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200531_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, p. 31.

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<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarker2006">Barker 2006</a>, pp. 86–88

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<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> "The mean depth of arrow wounds, for example, was an inch and a half, that of gunshot wounds six inches, not counting balls that went right through the body or head" (<a href="#CITEREFGunnGromelski2012">Gunn & Gromelski 2012</a>, pp. 1222–1223).

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<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilson1901" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Thomas (1901). "Arrow Wounds". American Anthropologist. 3 (3): 513–531. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1901.3.3.02a00070">10.1525/aa.1901.3.3.02a00070</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1548-1433">1548-1433</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/659204">659204</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIsraili2014" class="citation journal cs1">Israili, ZH (2014). "Antimicrobial Properties of Honey". Am J Ther. 21 (4): 304–23. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FMJT.0b013e318293b09b">10.1097/MJT.0b013e318293b09b</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23782759">23782759</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23337250">23337250</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECummins2006-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECummins2006_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCummins2006">Cummins 2006</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-longbow" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=longbow">"longbow"</a>. <a href="Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. June 2016. Retrieved 25 March 2018.</cite> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Gerald of Wales. (c.1188). The Journey Through Wales and The Description of Wales. Translated by:

Lewis Thorpe. (1978 edition). London: Penguin Books Ltd.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Itinerarium Cambriae, (1191)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite class="citation cs2">Weapon 030 – The Longbow, Osprey, p. 66, <q>12 at the time, 1191, this would be mail chausses, and the story is that having had one leg shot through and pinned to the saddle by an arrow, the knight wheeled his horse around, only to receive a second arrow, which nailed the other leg in the same fashion.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200534–48-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200534–48_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, pp. 34–48.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury198514–15-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradbury198514–15_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradbury1985">Bradbury 1985</a>, pp. 14–15.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200537–38,_48-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy200537–38,_48_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, pp. 37–38, 48.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers2011-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers2011_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogers2011">Rogers 2011</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadge2012211–212-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadge2012211–212_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWadge2012">Wadge 2012</a>, pp. 211–212.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKench2014" class="citation web cs1">Kench, Tony (19 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bowyers.com/LongbowOrigins.pdf">"Longbow Origins Before Crecy – Was It Really Welsh?"</a> (PDF). bowyers.com. Retrieved 16 June 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeen1999148-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeen1999148_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeen1999">Keen 1999</a>, p. 148.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConan_Doyle1997-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConan_Doyle1997_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConan_Doyle1997">Conan Doyle 1997</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRomanoni2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Romanoni, Fabio (2018). "Armi, equipaggiamenti, tecnologie". In Paolo Grillo, Aldo A. Settia (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38131838/Fabio_Romanoni_Armi_equipaggiamenti_tecnologie_in_Guerre_ed_eserciti_nel_Medioevo_a_cura_di_Paolo_Grillo_e_Aldo_A_Settia_Bologna_Il_Mulino_2018_Guerre_ed_eserciti_nella_storia_serie_a_cura_di_N_Labanca_pp_161_188">Guerre ed eserciti nel Medioevo</a> (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino. pp. 161–188. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-8-81-527956-9</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRomanoni2025" class="citation journal cs1">Romanoni, Fabio (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/136892992/Enemy_at_the_Gates_Self_defense_Strategies_and_Measures_Taken_by_the_Rural_Communities_of_the_Visconti_State_in_the_14th_Century">"Enemy at the Gates: Self-defense Strategies and Measures Taken by the Rural Communities of the Visconti State in the 14th Century"</a>. Edad Media. Revista de Historia. 26: 163. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2530-6448">2530-6448</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunn201053–81-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGunn201053–81_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGunn2010">Gunn 2010</a>, pp. 53–81.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Lawrence 2008, p. 254

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Roth 2012, pp. 222–223

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Roth 2012, pp. 207–208

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> John Norton, letter dated 5 October 1642. As printed in The Garrisons of Shropshire during the Civil War, Leake and Evans publishers, Shrewsbury, 1867, page 32. "every man from 16 to 50 and upwards, gott himself into such armes as they could presently attaine, or could imagine be conduceable for the defence of the towne". "some companies of foote.. with their musketts... began to wade foarde, which being descried, we, with our bowes and arrows did so gaule them (being unarmed men) that with their utmost speed they did retreate" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=4HBMAAAAMAAJ&rdid=book-4HBMAAAAMAAJ&rdot=1">https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=4HBMAAAAMAAJ&rdid=book-4HBMAAAAMAAJ&rdot=1</a> accessed 7 August 2012

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeath1980208–9-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeath1980208–9_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeath1980">Heath 1980</a>, pp. 208–9.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeatherstone1973154-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeatherstone1973154_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFeatherstone1973">Featherstone 1973</a>, p. 154.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Churchill-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Churchill_76-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheBirthOfBritain_Churchill/page/n260/mode/1up?view=theater">Churchill, Winston, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1, The Birth of Britain, Book Two, Ch.18, p.242.</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeatherstone1973157–158-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeatherstone1973157–158_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFeatherstone1973">Featherstone 1973</a>, pp. 157–158.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeath1980215–216-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeath1980215–216_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeath1980">Heath 1980</a>, pp. 215–216.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurne199137–39-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurne199137–39_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurne1991">Burne 1991</a>, pp. 37–39.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury198595–98-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradbury198595–98_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradbury1985">Bradbury 1985</a>, pp. 95–98.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett19941–20-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett19941–20_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett1994">Bennett 1994</a>, p. 1–20.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy2005403-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy2005403_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, p. 403.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy20056-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStricklandHardy20056_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStricklandHardy2005">Strickland & Hardy 2005</a>, p. 6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a> cites: <cite id="CITEREFGordonWebb1972" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Henry; Webb, Alf (1972). "The Hedgeley Moor Bow at Alnwick Castle". Journal of the Society of Archer-Antiquaries. 15: 8, 9.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-harvnb|Heath_n.d.|p=134-85"><a href="#cite_ref-harvnb|Heath_n.d.|p=134_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeath_n.d.">Heath n.d.</a>, p. 134

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a> cites: <cite id="CITEREFGordon1939" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Paul H. (1939). The New Archery. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co. p. 183.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a> cites: <cite id="CITEREFFord1887" class="citation book cs1">Ford, Horace (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryandpracti00buttgoog">The Theory and Practice of Archery</a>. London: Longman Green and Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryandpracti00buttgoog/page/n21">3</a>.</cite>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a> cites: <cite id="CITEREFMcKee1974" class="citation book cs1">McKee, Alexander (1974). King Henry VIII's Mary Rose. New York: Stein and Day. p. 103.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaiser1980">Kaiser 1980</a> cites: W.F. Paterson, Chairman, Society of Archer-Antiquaries. Letters, 5 May 1976.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConan_Doyle1997">Conan Doyle 1997</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKruschke1985">Kruschke 1985</a>, p. 31

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> The right to keep and bear arms: report of the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Ninety-seventh Congress, second session, U.S. G.P.O., 1982 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=babX_QDeTf4C&pg=PA46">p. 46</a> (see also: David T. Hardy, Partner in the Law Firm Sando & Hardy <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guncite.com/journals/senrpt/senhardy.html#fn8">Historical Bases of the Right To Keep and Bear Arms</a>)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrzejewski2003">Andrzejewski 2003</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qCA8EsnLmb4C&pg=PA65">p. 65</a> "It is surely not accidental that the only peasant revolt in England which succeeded took place at the time of the predominance of the longbow".

</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrevelyan2008">Trevelyan 2008</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dhzdClLxMr8C&pg=PA18">p. 18</a> "The good yeoman archer 'whose limbs were made in England' was not a retrospective fancy of Shakespeare, but an unpleasant reality for French and Scots, and a formidable consideration for bailiffs and Justices trying to enforce servile dues or statutory rates of wages in the name of Law, which no one high or low, regarded with any great respect".

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/osc/osc74.htm">"Yew Trees in Churchyards"</a>. Internet Sacred Texts Archive. Retrieved 17 August 2014.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAndrzejewski2003" class="citation book cs1">Andrzejewski, Stanislaw (2003) [1954]. Military organization and society. Psychology Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-17680-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBacon1971" class="citation book cs1">Bacon, Edward (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologydisco0000baco">Archaeology: Discoveries in the 1960s</a>. New York: Praeger. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-304-93635-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBennett1994" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Matthew (1994). "The Development of Battle Tactics in the Hundred Years War". In Curry, Anne; Hughes, Michael L (eds.). Arms, armies, and fortifications in the Hundred Years War. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press. pp. 1–20. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-85115-365-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBradbury1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Jim_Bradbury" title="Jim Bradbury">Bradbury, Jim</a> (1985). The Medieval Archer. The Boydell Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-85115-194-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFFeatherstone1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Donald_Featherstone_(wargamer)" title="Donald Featherstone (wargamer)">Featherstone, Donald</a> (1973) [1967]. Bowmen of England. London: New English Library. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0450016264</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGunn2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gunn, Steven (2010). "Archery Practice in Early Tudor England". Past and Present (209): 53–81. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtq029">10.1093/pastj/gtq029</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFHageneder2007" class="citation book cs1">Hageneder, F. (2007). Yew: A History. Sutton Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7509-4597-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHeath1980" class="citation book cs1">Heath, E.G. (1980). Archery : A Military History. London: Osprey. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0850453534</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHeath_n.d." class="citation book cs1">Heath, E.G. (n.d.) [1972]. The Grey Goose Wing. p. 134.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: year (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKeen1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Maurice_Keen" title="Maurice Keen">Keen, Maurice</a>, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalwarfareh00maur">Medieval Warfare: A History</a>. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-820639-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKruschke1985" class="citation book cs1">Kruschke, Earl Roger (1985). The right to keep and bear arms: a continuing American dilemma. C.C. Thomas Publishing Co. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-398-05141-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLawrence2008" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pAiwCQAAQBAJ&dq=The+Double-Armed+Man+Neade&pg=PA254">The Complete Soldier: Military Books and Military Culture in Early Stuart England, 1603–1645</a>. Boston: Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-9004170797</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLoades2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Mike_Loades" title="Mike Loades">Loades, Mike</a> (2013). The Longbow. Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1782000853</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLongmanWalrond1967" class="citation book cs1">Longman, C.J.; Walrond, H. (1967). Archery. New York: Fiederick Ungar Publishing Co.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMagierNowakTomaszZochowski2017" class="citation journal cs1">Magier, Mariusz; Nowak, Adrian; et al. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320288999">"Numerical Analysis of English Bows used in Battle of Crécy"</a>. Problemy Techniki Uzbrojenia. 142 (2): 69–85. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5604%2F01.3001.0010.5152">10.5604/01.3001.0010.5152</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1230-3801">1230-3801</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFOakeshott1960" class="citation book cs1">Oakeshott, R. Ewart (1960). The Archaeology of Weapons. London: Lutterworth Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPope2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Saxton_Pope" title="Saxton Pope">Pope, Saxton</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8hbow10.txt">Hunting with the Bow and Arrow</a>. Project Gutenberg EBook.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRoth2012" class="citation book cs1">Roth, Erik (2012). With a Bended Bow: Archery in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Stroud, Gloucestershire: The History Press Ltd. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0752463551</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRothero1984" class="citation book cs1">Rothero, Christopher (1984). The Scottish and Welsh wars, 1250–1400. Men at Arms. London: Osprey. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-85045-542-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSoarGibbsJuryStretton2010" class="citation book cs1">Soar, Hugh; Gibbs, Joseph; Jury, Christopher; Stretton, Mark (2010). Secrets of the English War Bow. Westholme. pp. 127–151. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1594161261</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStricklandHardy2005" class="citation book cs1">Strickland, Matthew; <a href="Robert_Hardy" title="Robert Hardy">Hardy, Robert</a> (2005). The Great Warbow: From Hastings to the Mary Rose. Sutton Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7509-3167-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTrevelyan2008" class="citation book cs1">Trevelyan, G. M. (2008). English Social History – A Survey of Six Centuries – Chaucer to Queen Victoria. Longman. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4437-2095-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWadge2007" class="citation book cs1">Wadge, Richard (2007). Arrowstorm. Stroud: Spellmount. pp. 160–61. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-86227-388-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWadge2012" class="citation book cs1">Wadge, Richard (2012). Archery in Medieval England: Who Were the Bowmen of Crecy?. Stroud, Gloucestershire: History Press Limited. pp. 211–212. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0752465876</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Journals</dt></dl>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCummins2006" class="citation journal cs1">Cummins, Josephine (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130201191152/http://historyofdentistry.co.uk/index_htm_files/2006Nov3.pdf">"Saving Prince Hal: maxillo-facial surgery, 1403"</a> (PDF). Dental History Magazine (19). Glasgow, Scotland: History of Dentistry Research Group, University of Glasgow. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1756-1728">1756-1728</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historyofdentistry.co.uk/index_htm_files/2006Nov3.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 1 February 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2012.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKaiser2003" class="citation journal cs1">Kaiser, Robert E. (December 2003). "Medieval Military Surgery". Medieval History Magazine. 1 (4).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKaiser1980" class="citation journal cs1">Kaiser, Robert E. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080423044120/http://margo.student.utwente.nl/sagi/artikel/longbow/longbow.html">"The Medieval English Longbow"</a>. Journal of the Society of Archer-Antiquaries. 23. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://margo.student.utwente.nl/sagi/artikel/longbow/longbow.html">the original</a> on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 12 April 2008.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRogers2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers, Clifford J. (2011). "The development of the longbow in late medieval England and "technological determinism"". Journal of Medieval History. 37 (3): 321–341. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmedhist.2011.06.002">10.1016/j.jmedhist.2011.06.002</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159466651">159466651</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Other</dt></dl>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBane2006" class="citation web cs1">Bane, Matheus (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111113094819/http://www.currentmiddleages.org/artsci/docs/Champ_Bane_Archery-Testing.pdf">"English Longbow Testing against various armor circa 1400"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.currentmiddleages.org/artsci/docs/Champ_Bane_Archery-Testing.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCohu2005" class="citation news cs1">Cohu, Will (3 April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3639756/How-they-did-affright-the-air-at-Agincourt.html">"How they did affright the air at Agincourt"</a>. <a href="The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLevick1992" class="citation web cs1">Levick, Ben (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.regia.org/SaxonArchery.htm">"They Didn't Have Bows, Did They?"</a>. Regia Anglorum Publications.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStaff2007" class="citation web cs1">Staff (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080225160036/http://www.maryrose.org/ship/bows2.htm">"The Ship – Armament – Bows"</a> (10 pages ed.). The Mary Rose Trust. pp. 6, 7. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.maryrose.org/ship/bows2.htm">the original</a> on 25 February 2008.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<dl><dt>Books</dt></dl>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAuden2008" class="citation book cs1">Auden, Thomas (2008). Memorials of Old Shropshire. Read Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4097-6478-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAllely2000" class="citation cs1">Allely, Steve; et al. (2000) [1992]. Hamm, Jim (ed.). The Traditional Bowyers Bible. Vol. 1. The Lyons Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-59921-453-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAspel2000" class="citation cs1">Aspel, G. Fred; et al. (2000) [1993]. Hamm, Jim (ed.). The Traditional Bowyers Bible. Vol. 2. The Lyons Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-58574-086-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBaker2000" class="citation cs1">Baker, Tim; et al. (2000) [1994]. Hamm, Jim (ed.). The Traditional Bowyers Bible. Vol. 3. The Lyons Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-58574-087-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAllely2008" class="citation cs1">Allely, Steve; et al. (2008). Hamm, Jim (ed.). The Traditional Bowyers Bible. Vol. 4. The Lyons Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-59921-453-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHardy1992" class="citation cs1">Hardy, Robert (1992). Longbow: A Social and Military History. Patrick Stephens. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-85260-412-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSoar2004" class="citation cs1">Soar, Hugh David Hewitt (2004). The Crooked Stick: A History of the Longbow (Weapons in History S.). Westholme U.S. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-59416-002-3</bdi>.</cite>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061110200718/http://www.westholmepublishing.com/crookedstick.html">A review</a> by Bernard Cornwell in <a href="The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSellman1964" class="citation book cs1">Sellman, Roger (1964). Mediaeval English Warfare. London: Methuen. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-416-63620-8</bdi>.</cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li></ul>

<dl><dt>Journals</dt></dl>

<ul><li>Thomas Esper The Replacement of the Longbow by Firearms in the English Army, Technology and Culture, Vol. VI, No. 3, 1965.</li>

<li>B.W. Kooi C.A. Bergman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bio.vu.nl/thb/users/kooi/kobe97.pdf">PDF:An Approach to the Study of Ancient Archery using Mathematical Modelling</a>, Antiquity 71:(271) 124–134 (1979)</li></ul>

<dl><dt>Other</dt></dl>

<ul><li>Rulon l. Hancock. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usarchery.org/files/flight_longbow_rules.pdf">PDF: United States National Archery Association Flight committee modern longbow flight rules</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070628155633/http://www.usarchery.org/files/flight_longbow_rules.pdf">Archived</a> 28 June 2007 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, U.S. National Archery Association. September 2002.</li>

<li>Paul Lalonde. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legiodraconis.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=pnSections&file=index&req=viewarticle&artid=251">A Bundle of Tudor War Arrows</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130314002745/http://www.legiodraconis.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=pnSections&file=index&req=viewarticle&artid=251">Archived</a> 14 March 2013 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, An article about the arrows found on the Mary Rose.</li>

<li>Liesl Wilhelmstochter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041213161242/http://www.ealdormere.sca.org/files/handbook_archeryapp1.pdf">Ealdormere Archery Handbook: Section 11: Towards a more medieval archer</a></li>

<li>Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041010230251/http://www.maryrose.org/ship/bows1.htm">Mary Rose historical ship</a>, The <a href="Mary_Rose_Trust" title="Mary Rose Trust">Mary Rose Trust</a> – {note: BACK of bow faces enemy.}</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.all-of-a-quiver.com">The Great Northwood Bowmen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211126031008/http://all-of-a-quiver.com/">Archived</a> 26 November 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Medieval Longbow Archery and re-enactment Society, re-enacting the 15th century, based in London.</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Archery634" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Archery" title="Archery">Archery</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_archery" title="History of archery">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_archery" title="Chinese archery">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Ky%C5%ABd%C5%8D" title="Kyūdō">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkish_archery" title="Turkish archery">Turkish</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_crossbows" title="History of crossbows">History of crossbows</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_competitive_archery" title="Modern competitive archery">Modern competitive archery</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Archery" title="World Archery">World Archery Federation</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Archery_Rankings" title="World Archery Rankings">World Archery Rankings</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archer's_paradox" title="Archer's paradox">Archer's paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Mounted_archery" title="Mounted archery">Mounted archery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ballista_elephant" title="Ballista elephant">Ballista elephant</a></li>

<li><a href="Yabusame" title="Yabusame">Yabusame</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Run_archery" title="Run archery">Run archery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bows</a> (<a href="Yumi" title="Yumi">yumi</a>) <a href="Bow_shape" title="Bow shape">Bow shape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arbalest" title="Arbalest">Arbalest</a></li>

<li><a href="Austroasiatic_crossbow" title="Austroasiatic crossbow">Austroasiatic crossbow</a></li>

<li><a href="Cable-backed_bow" title="Cable-backed bow">Cable-backed bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Composite_bow" title="Composite bow">Composite bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Compound_bow" title="Compound bow">Compound bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Crossbow" title="Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li>

<li><a href="Flatbow" title="Flatbow">Flatbow</a></li>

<li><a href="Gakgung" title="Gakgung">Gakgung</a></li>

<li><a href="Holmegaard_bow" title="Holmegaard bow">Holmegaard bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Laminated_bow" title="Laminated bow">Laminated bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Longbow" title="Longbow">Longbow</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongol_bow" title="Mongol bow">Mongol bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Recurve_bow" title="Recurve bow">Recurve bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Takedown_bow" title="Takedown bow">Takedown bow</a></li>

<li><a href="Welsh_bow" title="Welsh bow">Welsh bow</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a>

<li><a href="Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a></li>

<li><a href="Bowstring" title="Bowstring">Bowstring</a></li>

<li><a href="Bracer" title="Bracer">Bracer</a></li>

<li><a href="Arrow_cresting" title="Arrow cresting">Cresting machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Finger_tab" title="Finger tab">Finger tab</a></li>

<li><a href="Fletching" title="Fletching">Fletching</a></li>

<li><a href="Flu-flu_arrow" title="Flu-flu arrow">Flu-flu arrow</a></li>

<li><a href="Release_aid" title="Release aid">Release aid</a></li>

<li><a href="Crossbow_bolt" title="Crossbow bolt">Quarrel</a></li>

<li><a href="Quiver" title="Quiver">Quiver</a></li>

<li><a href="Shooting_target#Archery_sports" title="Shooting target">Target</a></li>

<li><a href="Thumb_ring" title="Thumb ring">Thumb ring</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bowfishing" title="Bowfishing">Bowfishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Bowhunting" title="Bowhunting">Bowhunting</a></li>

<li><a href="Bowyer" title="Bowyer">Bowyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Clout_archery" title="Clout archery">Clout archery</a></li>

<li><a href="Field_archery" title="Field archery">Field archery</a></li>

<li><a href="Popinjay_(sport)" title="Popinjay (sport)">Popinjay</a></li>

<li><a href="Target_archery" title="Target archery">Target archery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archery_at_the_Summer_Olympics" title="Archery at the Summer Olympics">Olympics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Archery_at_the_Summer_Youth_Olympics" title="Archery at the Summer Youth Olympics">Youth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="World_Archery_Championships" title="World Archery Championships">World Championships</a>

<ul><li><a href="World_Archery_Youth_Championships" title="World Archery Youth Championships">Youth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Archery_World_Cup" title="Archery World Cup">World Cup</a></li>

<li><a href="Archery_at_the_Summer_Paralympics" title="Archery at the Summer Paralympics">Paralympics</a></li>

<li><a href="Archery_at_the_Summer_World_University_Games" title="Archery at the Summer World University Games">Universiade</a></li>

<li><a href="World_University_Archery_Championships" title="World University Archery Championships">World University Archery Championships</a></li>

<li><a href="Archery_at_the_Military_World_Games" title="Archery at the Military World Games">Military World Games</a></li>

<li>Continental

<ul><li><a href="African_Archery_Championships" title="African Archery Championships">Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Pan_American_Archery_Championships" title="Pan American Archery Championships">Americas</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Archery_Championships" title="European Archery Championships">Europe</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Naadam#Archery" title="Naadam">Naadam</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Glossary_of_archery_terms" title="Glossary of archery terms">Glossary</a></li></ul>

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